Maurice Duplessis
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Maurice Le Noblet Duplessis (; April 20, 1890 – September 7, 1959), was a Canadian lawyer and politician who served as the 16th
premier of Quebec The premier of Quebec ( French: ''premier ministre du Québec'' (masculine) or ''première ministre du Québec'' (feminine)) is the head of government of the Canadian province of Quebec. The current premier of Quebec is François Legault of th ...
. A
conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy that seeks to promote and to preserve traditional institutions, practices, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilization i ...
,
nationalist Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Th ...
,
anti-Communist Anti-communism is Political movement, political and Ideology, ideological opposition to communism. Organized anti-communism developed after the 1917 October Revolution in the Russian Empire, and it reached global dimensions during the Cold War, w ...
, anti-unionist and fervent
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, he and his party, the Union Nationale'','' dominated provincial politics from the 1930s to the 1950s. Son of Nérée Duplessis, a lawyer who was serving at the time as a
Conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy that seeks to promote and to preserve traditional institutions, practices, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilization i ...
member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA), Maurice studied
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in
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and became a member of the
Bar of Quebec The Bar of Quebec (french: Barreau du Québec) is the regulatory body for the practice of advocates in the Canadian province of Quebec and one of two legal regulatory bodies in the province. It was founded on May 30, 1849, as the Bar of Lower Ca ...
in 1913. He then returned to his home town to practice law, where he founded a successful consultancy. Duplessis ran as a Conservative candidate in the 1923 elections but only managed to get the
Trois-Rivières Trois-Rivières (, – 'Three Rivers') is a city in the Mauricie administrative region of Quebec, Canada, at the confluence of the Saint-Maurice and Saint Lawrence rivers, on the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River across from the city of ...
seat four years later, which he retained until his death. His
rhetoric Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate parti ...
al skills helped him become the leader of the Official Opposition in the Legislative Assembly in 1933 in the place of
Camillien Houde Camillien Houde (August 13, 1889 – September 11, 1958) was a Quebec politician, a Member of Parliament, and a four-time mayor of Montreal – one of the few Canadian politicians to have served at all three levels of government. Political c ...
. As opposition leader, he agreed to a coalition with
Paul Gouin Paul Gouin (May 20, 1898 – December 4, 1976) was a politician in Quebec, Canada, was the son of Lomer Gouin and the grandson of Honoré Mercier. Life and career He was born in Montreal, Quebec to Lomer Gouin and Éliza Mercier. He fought ...
's
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(ALN)'','' a breakaway faction of former
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MLAs, of which he quickly became the most prominent member. The first attempt, in 1935, to oust
Louis-Alexandre Taschereau Louis-Alexandre Taschereau (; March 5, 1867 – July 6, 1952) was the 14th premier of Quebec from 1920 to 1936. He was a member of the Parti libéral du Québec. Early life Taschereau was born in Quebec City, Quebec, the son of Jean-Thoma ...
, then solidly in power for 15 years, failed. Duplessis, however, won in a landslide the following year, when the ALN merged with the Conservatives to form the '','' which Duplessis would lead until his death. The 1936 election broke the dominance of the Quebec Liberal Party it held uninterruptedly for almost 40 years. The first government of Maurice Duplessis lasted for just over three years. It was then that Duplessis became the president of the
Bar of Quebec The Bar of Quebec (french: Barreau du Québec) is the regulatory body for the practice of advocates in the Canadian province of Quebec and one of two legal regulatory bodies in the province. It was founded on May 30, 1849, as the Bar of Lower Ca ...
('), becoming the only person in Quebec to be
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, premier and president of the Bar at the same time. He was defeated by Liberal
Adélard Godbout Joseph-Adélard Godbout (September 24, 1892 – September 18, 1956) was a Canadian agronomist and politician. He served as the 15th premier of Quebec briefly in 1936, and again from 1939 to 1944. He served as leader of the Parti Libéral du Qu ...
in the 1939 election, when his bid to underline Quebec's
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to
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failed, but the same opposition, as expressed in the 1942 Canadian conscription plebiscite and the Conscription Crisis that followed, returned him to power following the 1944 election. His second stint as premier lasted for fifteen years and spanned four legislatures. He is the longest-serving premier of Quebec since
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by cumulative time of service and the last one to have consecutively served more than ten years. His leadership was only interrupted by his death in September 1959 due to
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. Duplessis was a proponent of
economic liberalism Economic liberalism is a political and economic ideology that supports a market economy based on individualism and private property in the means of production. Adam Smith is considered one of the primary initial writers on economic liberalism ...
, obstructing the efforts of the federal government to conduct
Keynesian Keynesian economics ( ; sometimes Keynesianism, named after British economist John Maynard Keynes) are the various macroeconomic theories and models of how aggregate demand (total spending in the economy) strongly influences economic output an ...
policies. While his first term saw the introduction of several key welfare policies (such as the universal
minimum wage A minimum wage is the lowest remuneration that employers can legally pay their employees—the price floor below which employees may not sell their labor. Most countries had introduced minimum wage legislation by the end of the 20th century. Bec ...
and old-age pensions), Duplessis viewed the
welfare state A welfare state is a form of government in which the state (or a well-established network of social institutions) protects and promotes the economic and social well-being of its citizens, based upon the principles of equal opportunity, equitabl ...
unfavourably, in particular by resisting calls to expand social programmes in the post-war period. In his second period of premiership, he presided over a period of strong economic growth, notably due to the development of the
Côte-Nord Côte-Nord (, ; ; land area ) is the second-largest administrative region by land area in Quebec, Canada, after Nord-du-Québec. It covers much of the northern shore of the Saint Lawrence River estuary and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence past Tadous ...
and rural areas. Duplessis implemented
pro-business A market economy is an economic system in which the decisions regarding investment, production and distribution to the consumers are guided by the price signals created by the forces of supply and demand, where all suppliers and consumers are ...
policies, which his opponents say led to wild capitalism and a clientelist relationship with business interests. The leader of Union Nationale also opposed the increasingly powerful
trade union A trade union (labor union in American English), often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers intent on "maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment", ch. I such as attaining better wages and benefits ( ...
s and fought against
communism Communism (from Latin la, communis, lit=common, universal, label=none) is a far-left sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology and current within the socialist movement whose goal is the establishment of a communist society, a s ...
by adopting laws such as the
Padlock Law The ''Act to Protect the Province Against Communistic Propaganda'' (french: Loi protégeant la province contre la propagande communiste), commonly known as the "Padlock Law" or "Padlock Act" (french: La loi du cadenas), was a law in the province ...
. Duplessis, while not a sovereigntist, repeatedly asserted provincial autonomy. He also strongly protected the traditional role of the
Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
in Quebec's society, notably in healthcare and education, engaged in
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of
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, and resisted non-conservative tendencies in the society. This, coupled with his authoritarian grip of the province and what was widely seen to be an anachronistic model of society Duplessis was promoting, led his critics to label the period as the ''
Grande Noirceur The Grande Noirceur (, English, Great Darkness) refers to the regime of conservative policies undertaken by the governing body of Quebec Premier Maurice Le Noblet Duplessis from 1936 to 1939 and from 1944 to 1959. Rural areas Duplessis favour ...
'' (Great Darkness). While this opinion is still present, some narratives are challenging the perception, providing more nuance to the portrait of the Duplessism, whose legacy in social and economic matters was largely undone in the 1960s with the
Quiet Revolution The Quiet Revolution (french: Révolution tranquille) was a period of intense socio-political and socio-cultural change in French Canada which started in Quebec after the election of 1960, characterized by the effective secularization of govern ...
.


Biography


Early life


Family

Scholars have traced Duplessis's roots back to the sixth generation. Jean-Baptiste Duplessis (1711–1775) was a
Mascouten The Mascouten (also ''Mascoutin'', ''Mathkoutench'', ''Muscoden,'' or ''Musketoon'') were a tribe of Algonquian-speaking Native Americans located in the Midwest. They are believed to have dwelt on both sides of the Mississippi River, adjacent to ...
slave Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
of a noble called Louis Gatineau-Duplessis. The Mascouten were an Algonquian-speaking
Indigenous Indigenous may refer to: *Indigenous peoples *Indigenous (ecology), presence in a region as the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention *Indigenous (band), an American blues-rock band *Indigenous (horse), a Hong Kong racehorse ...
tribe from the present-day
American Midwest The Midwestern United States, also referred to as the Midwest or the American Midwest, is one of four census regions of the United States Census Bureau (also known as "Region 2"). It occupies the northern central part of the United States. I ...
. He probably took the last and first names from Louis's brother, Jean-Baptiste, who became a godfather during the slave's christening in 1714 in
Detroit Detroit ( , ; , ) is the largest city in the U.S. state of Michigan. It is also the largest U.S. city on the United States–Canada border, and the seat of government of Wayne County. The City of Detroit had a population of 639,111 at th ...
. Therefore, contrary to some suggestions, Maurice Duplessis was not a descendant of Guillaume Guillemot Du Plessis-Kebodot, one of the earliest governors of Trois-Rivières. The connection between Jean-Baptiste Duplessis and Louis Gatineau-Duplessis is uncertain. Earlier works, particularly François-Sévère Lesieur Désaulniers's book on the genealogy of families in Yamachiche, say Gatineau-Duplessis was his father, but newer scholarship dismisses this theory as implausible, stating instead that the slave might have had some family relationship with Louis Gatineau-Duplessis, but certainly not a paternal one. It is also unclear why the Mascouten man took the nickname "Le Noblet", but it stuck to his descendants. One of his children, Isidore, settled in
Pointe-du-Lac Pointe-du-Lac is one of the six boroughs of the city of Trois-Rivières and a former municipality in Quebec, Canada on the St. Lawrence River. It was founded in 1738 and its current church dates from 1882. Another old building in the village is the ...
(today part of
Trois-Rivières Trois-Rivières (, – 'Three Rivers') is a city in the Mauricie administrative region of Quebec, Canada, at the confluence of the Saint-Maurice and Saint Lawrence rivers, on the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River across from the city of ...
), and all of Duplessis family from the paternal side have stayed in the area, either in that settlement or in nearby Yamachiche. Maurice Le Noblet Duplessis was born on April 20, 1890, in Trois-Rivières to a religious family of modest means. He was the second child and only son of Nérée Le Noblet Duplessis, a member of the Legislative Assembly of Quebec for Saint-Maurice. Maurice's father was a kind but busy man and spent little time with the family, which was, however, expected at the time. Two of Nérée's sisters married politicians who would also sit in the Legislative Assembly. Maurice's mother was Berthe Genest, who had Scottish and
Irish Irish may refer to: Common meanings * Someone or something of, from, or related to: ** Ireland, an island situated off the north-western coast of continental Europe ***Éire, Irish language name for the isle ** Northern Ireland, a constituent unit ...
origins on her maternal side. The family of the future premier was well-disposed to
Anglophones Speakers of English are also known as Anglophones, and the countries where English is natively spoken by the majority of the population are termed the '' Anglosphere''. Over two billion people speak English , making English the largest languag ...
; Duplessis would even joke that he was "one of them". At the end of the 19th century, the Duplessis family of Trois-Rivières was active in the political and religious life of the region, and the members of the family could often be found among
conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy that seeks to promote and to preserve traditional institutions, practices, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilization i ...
and
ultramontanist Ultramontanism is a clerical political conception within the Catholic Church that places strong emphasis on the prerogatives and powers of the Pope. It contrasts with Gallicanism, the belief that popular civil authority—often represented by th ...
sympathizers, with whom they would often debate current political events. Some of the influential figures of the time, including
Louis-Olivier Taillon Sir Louis-Olivier Taillon (September 26, 1840 – April 25, 1923) was a Canadian lawyer and politician. He was the eighth premier of Quebec, serving two separate terms. Political career Taillon's first term of office was just four days, from J ...
,
Edmund James Flynn Edmund James Flynn (November 16, 1847 – June 7, 1927) was a Canadian politician and the tenth premier of Quebec, from 1896 to 1897. Background Flynn, the son of Jacques Flynn and Elizabeth Tostevin, was born at Percé on November 16, 184 ...
,
Joseph-Mathias Tellier Sir Joseph-Mathias Tellier (January 15, 1861 – October 18, 1952) was a Canadian politician born in Sainte-Mélanie, Quebec, Canada. Biography He was a Quebec Conservative Party leader, but never Premier (his party lost the 1912 election, ...
,
Louis-Philippe Pelletier Louis-Philippe Pelletier, (February 1, 1857 – February 8, 1921) was a Canadian lawyer, journalist, newspaper owner, politician, professor, and judge. Biography Born in Trois-Pistoles, Lower Canada, the son of Thomas-Philippe Pelletier a ...
and
Thomas Chapais Sir Joseph Amable Thomas Chapais (March 23, 1858 – July 15, 1946) was a French Canadian author, editor, historian, journalist, professor, and politician. Born in Saint-Denis, Quebec (then Canada East), the son of Jean-Charles Chapais, a ...
, could be found there. In addition to that, Maurice's father, a deeply pious person, maintained close relations with
Louis-François Richer Laflèche Louis-François Laflèche, (September 4, 1818 – July 14, 1898), was a Catholic bishop of the diocese of Trois-Rivières, in the province of Quebec, Canada. Early life and career He was born on September 4, 1818, in the village of Sainte-Ann ...
, the bishop of the Diocese of Trois-Rivières, where he worked as
legal counsel A lawyer is a person who Practice of law, practices law. The role of a lawyer varies greatly across different Jurisdiction, legal jurisdictions. A lawyer can be classified as an advocate, attorney at law, attorney, barrister, canonist, canon l ...
. The bishop supported his electoral bid for the Saint-Maurice seat in 1886, which Nérée won. Maurice was born during his father's reelection campaign, who chose to name his son for the electoral district he was the for. The newborn boy was then baptized by Laflèche himself. File:Maurice Duplessis et ses soeurs.png, alt=A black-and-white photo of five little children posing in front of a camera, Maurice Duplessis with his sisters, Marguerite, Jeanne, Étiennette and Joséphine-Gabrielle, 1897 File:Samuel Genest, ca. 1925.jpg, alt=A black-and-white photograph of a man in a suit with a tie, Samuel Genest, president of the '' Association canadienne-française d’éducation de l’Ontario'' (1932–33), a Franco-Ontarian advocacy organization, uncle of Maurice Duplessis. File:Richard-Stanislas Cooke.jpg, alt=A black-and-white photograph of a man in a suit with a bow tie, Richard-Stanislas Cooke, mayor of Trois-Rivières (1896–98),
Liberal Liberal or liberalism may refer to: Politics * a supporter of liberalism ** Liberalism by country * an adherent of a Liberal Party * Liberalism (international relations) * Sexually liberal feminism * Social liberalism Arts, entertainment and m ...
MLA for
Trois-Rivières Trois-Rivières (, – 'Three Rivers') is a city in the Mauricie administrative region of Quebec, Canada, at the confluence of the Saint-Maurice and Saint Lawrence rivers, on the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River across from the city of ...
, uncle of Maurice Duplessis. File:William-Pierre Grant, ca. 1930.jpg, alt=A black-and-white photograph of a man in a suit with a tie, William-Pierre Grant, Liberal MLA for Champlain, uncle of Maurice Duplessis.


Studies

In 1898, Duplessis left his home city to study at the Collège Notre-Dame in
Montreal Montreal ( ; officially Montréal, ) is the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, second-most populous city in Canada and List of towns in Quebec, most populous city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian ...
, which was run by the
Congregation of Holy Cross , image = Congregation of Holy Cross.svg , image_size = 150px , abbreviation = CSC , formation = , founder = Blessed Fr. Basile-Antoine Marie Moreau, C.S.C. , founding_location = ...
. There he met
André Bessette André Bessette, C.S.C. (9 August 1845 – 6 January 1937), more commonly known as Brother André (french: Frère André), and since his canonization as Saint André of Montreal, was a lay brother of the Congregation of Holy Cross and a signifi ...
(better known as Brother André), then
porter Porter may refer to: Companies * Porter Airlines, Canadian regional airline based in Toronto * Porter Chemical Company, a defunct U.S. toy manufacturer of chemistry sets * Porter Motor Company, defunct U.S. car manufacturer * H.K. Porter, Inc., ...
of the college, who came to like young Duplessis and handed him over the task of finding students whom the
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wished to see. The relationship was so close that it was then that Duplessis developed the cult of
Saint Joseph Joseph (; el, Ἰωσήφ, translit=Ioséph) was a 1st-century Jewish man of Nazareth who, according to the canonical Gospels, was married to Mary, the mother of Jesus, and was the legal father of Jesus. The Gospels also name some brothers of ...
, which he carried for the rest of his life, and which sometimes influenced his political choices. The future premier was a bright student, excelling in French, history,
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
and
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; at the same time, he was known to be playful and sometimes mischievous (a "scamp", as Conrad Black suggests) which would often lead Duplessis into trouble. In 1902, Duplessis moved to the Séminaire de Trois-Rivières in order to pursue his study in a classical college. Maurice continued to excel in other subjects, including
history History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the History of writing#Inventions of writing, invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbr ...
,
theology Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
,
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
and
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
, which helped him become the best student in his year, but in particular sharpened his
rhetoric Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate parti ...
al skills while attending the debate club at the college's Saint Thomas Aquinas Society. Maurice would, as Conrad Black wrote, "enjoy, almost wallow in, extravagant but thin treatises on the founders of French Canada", where he would show his attachment to and admiration of his roots and the Catholic faith. He was especially fond of Louis Hébert, one of the first
colonizer Colonization, or colonisation, constitutes large-scale population movements wherein migrants maintain strong links with their, or their ancestors', former country – by such links, gain advantage over other inhabitants of the territory. When ...
s of the
New France New France (french: Nouvelle-France) was the area colonized by France in North America, beginning with the exploration of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with the cession of New France to Great Britain and Spai ...
and a pioneer of farming in the area, which Black suggests was a sign that he already had a deep affection for the rural lifestyle at this stage, particularly given that he spent the summer with his grandfather in Yamachiche. Duplessis's interest for politics appeared at a very young age. As early as at the age of ten, Maurice expressed strong interest in the electoral statistics of Quebec, and later in his adolescence, he was already engaging in political meetings and was speaking with the voters. The future premier was preparing for public life by working in a political organisation of Joseph-Arthur Barrette, a
Conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy that seeks to promote and to preserve traditional institutions, practices, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilization i ...
MP for Berthier, though when it came to politics, Duplessis preferred its practical aspects, rather than the theory. When finishing school, Maurice Duplessis felt attracted to public life, while at the same time, he was equally devoted to the Catholic Church due to the influence of Brother André. However, Maurice felt that being a religious minister bore too many constraints, and, later in his life, he confided to his secretary that "the sacerdocy astoo much for me." He was not interested to pursue a business career, either, because, as Black suggested, "he knew the English had an overwhelming advantage". Strongly influenced by the family and by the uptick in engagement in political matters, he decided to go in his father's footsteps. Thus in autumn of 1910, he enrolled in the faculty of law at the
Université Laval Université Laval is a public research university in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. The university was founded by royal charter issued by Queen Victoria in 1852, with roots in the founding of the Séminaire de Québec in 1663 by François de Montm ...
in Montreal, which is now a separate university called
Université de Montréal The Université de Montréal (UdeM; ; translates to University of Montreal) is a French-language public research university in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The university's main campus is located in the Côte-des-Neiges neighborhood of Côte- ...
. Pursuing a law degree was then a standard way to get into politics. According to Conrad Black, Duplessis's pastimes of the time were not numerous: While studying, he was noted for his liveliness, sharp responses and socializing. Duplessis, sitting in the opposition, was a local star within the
model parliament The Model Parliament is the term, attributed to Frederic William Maitland, used for the 1295 Parliament of England of King Edward I. History This assembly included members of the clergy and the aristocracy, as well as representatives from the v ...
organized by the university. The future premier of Quebec, before practising law, trained in the offices of Rodolphe Monty et
Alfred Duranleau Alfred Duranleau, (November 1, 1871 – March 11, 1951) was a Canadian lawyer, politician, and judge. Born in Farnham, Quebec, the son of Napoléon Duranleau and Adélaïde Patenaude, he was educated as a lawyer and was called to the Queb ...
, two nationalist conservatives and friends of Duplessis's family, where Maurice was referred to by his father, Nérée.


Entry into politics


Law practice

After three years of studies, Duplessis was admitted to the
Bar of Quebec The Bar of Quebec (french: Barreau du Québec) is the regulatory body for the practice of advocates in the Canadian province of Quebec and one of two legal regulatory bodies in the province. It was founded on May 30, 1849, as the Bar of Lower Ca ...
on September 4 or 14, 1913. Maurice returned to his home town to practice law at the , whose member he would stay until his death. He first worked for a short time together with his father, before Nérée Duplessis was nominated as judge of the
Superior Court of Quebec The Superior Court of Quebec (french: Cour supérieure du Québec) is a superior trial court in the Province of Quebec, in Canada. It consists of 157 judges who are appointed by the federal government. Appeals from this court are taken to the Que ...
on June 15, 1914. The future Premier then opened his own consultancy, ''Duplessis, Langlois & Lamothe, Avocats et Procureurs'', on Hart Street, behind his parents' house, together with Édouard Langlois, an old friend of his from the Séminaire who became husband of Duplessis's sister, Gabrielle, and another lawyer from Trois-Rivières, Léon Lamothe.'''' The partnership of these lawyers lasted at least until the early 1930s. Practising civil law more than
criminal law Criminal law is the body of law that relates to crime. It prescribes conduct perceived as threatening, harmful, or otherwise endangering to the property, health, safety, and moral welfare of people inclusive of one's self. Most criminal law i ...
, Duplessis developed his large client base among the ordinary people, who were attracted due to his arguments in court that often proved persuasive. He was quickly recognized as a sociable and competent lawyer who approached his cases carefully, and thus became a popular figure in the town. The young lawyer engaged in the activities of his area, notably directing of a local
baseball Baseball is a bat-and-ball sport played between two teams of nine players each, taking turns batting and fielding. The game occurs over the course of several plays, with each play generally beginning when a player on the fielding tea ...
team, and became a fixture in high-end taverns of his town. His professional success, briefly interrupted by the death of his mother in 1921, let him buy a personal Winton on a loan (to great dismay of his father). Duplessis suspended his law career in early 1934 amid mounting obligations in the Legislative Assembly, though he would still be formally mentioned as a member of the bar.


First electoral successes

Despite a promising career start in his legal profession, Duplessis did not lose sight from his political ambitions. He made his first attempt to get to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec in 1923, when he became a Conservative candidate for the riding of Trois-Rivières, seeking to oust the incumbent Liberal ,
Louis-Philippe Mercier Louis-Philippe Mercier was a politician from Quebec, Canada. Background He was born on September 4, 1877 in Fraserville, Quebec (now Rivière-du-Loup). He was a notary public and a senior army officer of the local military reserve. Member of ...
. The campaign was a heated one. Mercier benefited from a well-organized political structure in the area, directed by his mentor,
Jacques Bureau Jacques Bureau, (July 9, 1860 – January 23, 1933) was a Canadian politician. Born in Trois-Rivières, Canada East, the son of J. Napoleon Bureau and Sophie Gingras, Bureau was educated at Nicolet College and received a Bachelor of Laws ...
, who at the time served as a
member of Parliament A member of parliament (MP) is the representative in parliament of the people who live in their electoral district. In many countries with bicameral parliaments, this term refers only to members of the lower house since upper house members of ...
for
Three Rivers and St. Maurice Three Rivers and St. Maurice (french: Trois-Rivières-et-Saint-Maurice; also known as Three Rivers—St. Maurice) was a federal electoral district in Quebec, Canada, that was represented in the House of Commons of Canada from 1892 to 1935. This ...
and the federal minister of customs and excise. Maurice counted on the solidarity of his fellow lawyers, the good reputation among his clients as well as his father's acquaintances' support (notably
Louis-Olivier Taillon Sir Louis-Olivier Taillon (September 26, 1840 – April 25, 1923) was a Canadian lawyer and politician. He was the eighth premier of Quebec, serving two separate terms. Political career Taillon's first term of office was just four days, from J ...
), some of whom came over to make speeches in Duplessis's favour. His campaign focused on the criticism of what Duplessis alleged was Premier
Louis-Alexandre Taschereau Louis-Alexandre Taschereau (; March 5, 1867 – July 6, 1952) was the 14th premier of Quebec from 1920 to 1936. He was a member of the Parti libéral du Québec. Early life Taschereau was born in Quebec City, Quebec, the son of Jean-Thoma ...
's "contempt towards provincial autonomy" and towards municipal rights, while also speaking against the Liberals' management of the judiciary. Despite a rather close race, Maurice lost to the incumbent, with 1,328 votes for Duplessis and 1,612 for Mercier. Duplessis at the time did not expect to win the riding anyway, but instead hoped that his good showing would make him a good candidate of the opposition leader in the region. Duplessis attempted a second run to the Legislative Assembly, trying to get as much support from working- and middle-class families as he could, including by paying personal visits to them and tracking his opponent's moves during Mercier's another four years in office; his resolve to get to the provincial parliament increased even further after his father died in 1926. Despite a dismal showing of the Conservatives in the 1927 election, where they only managed to capture 9 out of 85 seats, Duplessis eked out a victory of 2,622 to 2,496 votes in a rematch against Mercier and flipped the Trois-Rivières seat, previously considered a Liberal stronghold, for the first time in 27 years. In his victory speech, he is said to have declared that "There stands before you a future Prime Minister of Quebec". At the time when Duplessis was elected, the Legislative Assembly was only in session for two months in a year, which allowed Duplessis to spend more time in his electoral district. Duplessis became immediately active on the parliament floor once the session started on January 10, 1928. In his maiden speech on January 19, the Legislative Assembly freshman decried the overemphasis on industrial development, as opposed to rural and small-business interests, called to stop increasing taxes and to respect the religious nature of Sundays, and proposed to make an inventory of the forest industry (it was suspected at the time that the resources were being overexploited) and to reorganize the provincial police. The first speech left Premier Taschereau impressed, who reportedly remarked that "this young man ..will go far". His rhetorical skills and the knowledge of the law on the books made him a rising star in the opposition. When Arthur Sauvé left the leadership of the Conservatives, it was even supposed that Duplessis could take the steers of the battered party, but at the time, Duplessis was not ready yet.
Camillien Houde Camillien Houde (August 13, 1889 – September 11, 1958) was a Quebec politician, a Member of Parliament, and a four-time mayor of Montreal – one of the few Canadian politicians to have served at all three levels of government. Political c ...
,
Mayor of Montreal The mayor of Montreal is head of the executive branch of the Montreal City Council. The current mayor is Valérie Plante, who was elected into office on November 5, 2017, and sworn in on November 16. The office of the mayor administers all ci ...
, was nominated instead, but he often had to leave the parliament sessions because of his other demanding job, so Duplessis, whom the Conservative caucus already saw as a safe alternative to Houde should his policies fail, was able to informally lead the caucus in the leader's absence. Arthur Sauvé, in his resignation speech, asked his successor "to reestablish order in our ravaged ranks". Even though the new leader liked Duplessis, the future premier did not particularly trust Houde's organizational capabilities, finding him "a verbose, blustering, impetuous man". He also said to his party colleague,
Antonio Barrette Antonio J. Barrette (May 26, 1899 – December 15, 1968) was a Quebec politician born in Joliette, Quebec, Canada. Member of the legislature Barrette ran as a Conservative candidate in the provincial district of Joliette in the 1935 electi ...
, who would serve briefly as Premier in 1960: "You’re going to see Houde get to the top of the mountain and then be over the hill". Conrad Black characterized his relationship with Houde, together with his political views, in the following way: Later events seemed to confirm Duplessis's intuition. In the 1931 election, the Conservatives were again resoundingly defeated, with only 11 seats out of 90 in the party's hands despite the fact that the Conservatives got a markedly larger share of votes provincially. Houde lost his own riding, while Duplessis got barely reelected with a razor-thin margin of 41 votes (3,812 for Duplessis versus 3,771 for Louis-Philippe Bigué, his Liberal challenger). Upon learning the results, Taschereau declared that "this outcome means the end of Houdism". File:Maurice Duplessis 1927.jpg, alt=A black-and-white photograph of a man in a suit with a tie., Maurice Duplessis in 1927, the year of his first successful election File:Louis-Alexandre Taschereau - 1930.png, alt=A sepia photo of a man in a suit with a tie., Louis-Alexandre Taschereau, MLA for Montmorency, leader of the Quebec Liberal Party and
premier of Quebec The premier of Quebec ( French: ''premier ministre du Québec'' (masculine) or ''première ministre du Québec'' (feminine)) is the head of government of the Canadian province of Quebec. The current premier of Quebec is François Legault of th ...
in 1920–1936 File:Arthur Sauvé, ca. 1930.jpg, alt=A black-and-white photograph of a man in a suit with a tie.,
Arthur Sauvé Arthur Sauvé, (October 1, 1874 – February 6, 1944) was born in Saint-Hermas (today part of Mirabel, Quebec). The Legislative Assembly of Quebec member for Deux-Montagnes (provincial electoral district), Deux-Montagnes from 1908 to 1930, h ...
, MLA for Deux-Montagnes, leader of the Conservative Party of Quebec in 1916–1929 and father of
Paul Sauvé Joseph-Mignault-Paul Sauvé (March 24, 1907 – January 2, 1960) was a Canadian lawyer, World War II veteran, and politician. He was the 17th premier of Quebec in 1959 and 1960. Life Paul Sauvé was born in Saint-Benoit, Quebec, Canada to journ ...
, who would replace Duplessis as premier of Quebec after his death in 1959. File:Camillien Houde, ca. 1930.png, alt=A sepia photo of a man in a suit with a tie.,
Camillien Houde Camillien Houde (August 13, 1889 – September 11, 1958) was a Quebec politician, a Member of Parliament, and a four-time mayor of Montreal – one of the few Canadian politicians to have served at all three levels of government. Political c ...
, the penultimate leader of the Conservative Party of Quebec in 1929–1931, MLA for
Montréal–Sainte-Marie Montréal–Sainte-Marie was a former provincial electoral district in the Montreal region of Quebec, Canada that elected members to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec. It was created for the 1912 election from part of Montréal division no. 1 ...
and
mayor of Montreal The mayor of Montreal is head of the executive branch of the Montreal City Council. The current mayor is Valérie Plante, who was elected into office on November 5, 2017, and sworn in on November 16. The office of the mayor administers all ci ...
File:Assemblée législative du Québec 1933-04-05.jpg, alt=A black-and-white photograph of a parliament in session, with MLAs sitting in their places, A Legislative Assembly session in the Blue Room on April 5, 1933. Duplessis, elected from the oldest continuous provincial riding in Quebec, is seated in the third position from the background in the first row, directly opposite Taschereau.


Rise to power


Leader of the Official Opposition

The 1931 election has seen the Conservatives internal strife, already present in Sauvé years, intensify. The party members could not even agree to a common strategy of dealing with the results of the election. Houde opted for a recount in 63 ridings won by Liberals, alleging widespread electoral fraud; Duplessis, however, was among a group of dissident MLAs who refused to endorse Houde's idea, with Duplessis particularly being afraid that his narrow victory would be overturned. The plan was frustrated by the governing Liberals, who passed legislation requiring that
Can$ The Canadian dollar (symbol: $; code: CAD; french: dollar canadien) is the currency of Canada. It is abbreviated with the dollar sign $, there is no standard disambiguating form, but the abbreviation Can$ is often suggested by notable style ...
1,000 () be paid for each contested riding. In an effort to appease the Anglophone community, Houde designated an ageing
Charles Ernest Gault Charles Ernest Gault (September 19, 1861 – December 25, 1946) was a politician in Quebec, Canada. He was born in Montreal, Quebec, and educated at the High School of Montreal. He was first elected to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec in ...
, a Houde ally and long-time MLA from
Montréal–Saint-Georges Montréal–Saint-Georges was a former provincial electoral district in the Montreal region of Quebec, Canada that elected members to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec. It was created for the 1912 election from parts of Montréal division no. ...
, as a new leader of the parliamentary caucus. The choice enraged Duplessis, who was a rising star in his party. Houde also nominated Gault as leader of the Conservatives after he lost his mayorship and resigned from the leadership of the party on 19 September 1932, but the Conservative caucus overrode that decision on November 7 and put Duplessis in charge. The decision was formally confirmed during a party congress in
Sherbrooke Sherbrooke ( ; ) is a city in southern Quebec, Canada. It is at the confluence of the Saint-François and Magog rivers in the heart of the Estrie administrative region. Sherbrooke is also the name of a territory equivalent to a regional count ...
on October 4–5, 1933, when Duplessis was confirmed in his position, getting 332 votes against 214 cast for
Onésime Gagnon Onésime Gagnon, (October 23, 1888 – September 30, 1961) was a Canadian politician who served as the 20th Lieutenant Governor of Québec. Background He was born in Saint-Léon-de-Standon, Quebec, on October 23, 1888, and was the son of On ...
, an MLA from Dorchester who favoured closer ties with the federal Conservatives. Duplessis received support from seven out of 10 MLAs from his party as well as all federal ministers from Quebec with the exception of
Maurice Dupré Maurice Dupré, PC (March 20, 1888 – October 3, 1941) was a Canadian politician. Born in Lévis, Quebec, he first ran unsuccessfully for the House of Commons of Canada representing the Quebec riding of Kamouraska in the 1925 federal e ...
, who was a law partner of Gagnon. While Duplessis got less support from the Anglophones due to him being perceived as too nationalist, Richard Jones argues that it was the superior organisation and not the nationalist rhetoric that secured Maurice's victory. Despite the victory, the tensions within the Conservative caucus did not subside. The news of the election of the new leader was received well in Trois-Rivières and
Quebec City Quebec City ( or ; french: Ville de Québec), officially Québec (), is the capital city of the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian province of Quebec. As of July 2021, the city had a population of 549,459, and the Communauté métrop ...
. Duplessis met with Cardinal
Jean-Marie-Rodrigue Villeneuve Jean-Marie-Rodrigue Villeneuve (November 2, 1883 – January 17, 1947) was a Canadian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of Quebec from 1931 until his death, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1933. Biography ...
,
Anglican Anglicanism is a Western Christian tradition that has developed from the practices, liturgy, and identity of the Church of England following the English Reformation, in the context of the Protestant Reformation in Europe. It is one of th ...
bishop Williams,
Henry George Carroll Henry George Carroll, (January 31, 1865 – August 20, 1939) was a Canadian politician, jurist and the 16th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec from 1929 to 1934 and the last anglophone to serve in that position to the present day. Born in Ka ...
, the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, as well as the mayor of Quebec City,
Henri-Edgar Lavigueur Henri-Edgar Lavigueur (16 February 1867 – 29 October 1943) was a Liberal party member of the House of Commons of Canada and served as alderman and Mayor of Quebec City where he was born. His grandmother, Marguerite, was the daughter of Gene ...
. On the other hand, Camillien Houde was angered by the choice of his party's caucus. He bitterly declared that "either I will perish or they uplessis supporterswill" and said that he was "free to associate myself with any serious movement that will try to get us rid of two political parties in Quebec that perpetuate the idea that the power trumps the law". Houde would only reconcile with Duplessis in 1944. Duplessis immediately engaged in his new job. In his response to Taschereau's
speech from the throne A speech from the throne, or throne speech, is an event in certain monarchies in which the reigning sovereign, or a representative thereof, reads a prepared speech to members of the nation's legislature when a session is opened, outlining th ...
, Duplessis harshly criticized the management of the province, in particular pointing to the overcapitalization of companies, chaos in the province's industry and resource exploitation, and what he saw as unjust treatment of the municipalities, unnecessary confrontations with the federal government, the lack of respect for traditions and pandering too much to big business interests instead of developing rural areas. Unlike some of his other colleagues in the party centered around
Aimé Guertin Aimé Guertin (June 7, 1898 – June 8, 1970) was a Canadian business owner and politician in Quebec. He represented Hull in the Legislative Assembly of Quebec from 1927 to 1934 as a Conservative. The son of Thimoté Guertin, a merchant, an ...
, however, he opposed
trust Trust often refers to: * Trust (social science), confidence in or dependence on a person or quality It may also refer to: Business and law * Trust law, a body of law under which one person holds property for the benefit of another * Trust (bus ...
-busting in order to increase the clout of French-Canadian businesses and saw unfavourably the advocacy of some of his party colleagues to overhaul the social welfare system. Despite the differences within the opposition, the governing Liberals had even more problems. Quebec was in the midst of the
Great Depression The Great Depression (19291939) was an economic shock that impacted most countries across the world. It was a period of economic depression that became evident after a major fall in stock prices in the United States. The economic contagio ...
, which left Canada's economy declining. The Liberal Party, then in power for more than 35 years, was suffering from internal tensions, too, but also from the ''
laissez-faire ''Laissez-faire'' ( ; from french: laissez faire , ) is an economic system in which transactions between private groups of people are free from any form of economic interventionism (such as subsidies) deriving from special interest groups. ...
'' economic policies that proved inadequate for the crisis, and what Conrad Black described as inflexibility and population's weariness of the government that has been in power for too long. As a result, some of the Liberal MLAs became disillusioned with Taschereau and created a new party, the ''Action libérale nationale'' (ALN).


Coalition with the ''Action libérale nationale''

The new party, which in particular despised the big business's interests in the province, consisted of
nationalist Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Th ...
and progressive MLAs led by
Paul Gouin Paul Gouin (May 20, 1898 – December 4, 1976) was a politician in Quebec, Canada, was the son of Lomer Gouin and the grandson of Honoré Mercier. Life and career He was born in Montreal, Quebec to Lomer Gouin and Éliza Mercier. He fought ...
and included some other figures, such as
Philippe Hamel Philippe Hamel (October 12, 1884 – January 22, 1954) was a Quebec nationalism, nationalist and Progressivism, progressive politician in Quebec, Canada. Background He was born on October 12, 1884, in Quebec City. His father was Charles-Ant ...
,
Joseph-Ernest Grégoire Joseph-Ernest Grégoire (July 31, 1886 – September 17, 1980) was a French Canadian politician. Background He was born in Disraeli, Quebec on July 31, 1886. He was an attorney and a professor. Member of the Barreau du Quebec in 1913, ...
and
Oscar Drouin Oscar Drouin (September 29, 1890 – July 16, 1953) was a politician in Quebec, Canada. Background He was born on September 29, 1890 in Quebec City. Member of the legislature Drouin won a by-election in 1928 and became the Liberal Member ...
. The members of the new political force drew heavily from the ''Programme de restauration sociale,'' a social policy document drafted by the Catholic clergy in 1933 that advocated
corporatism Corporatism is a collectivist political ideology which advocates the organization of society by corporate groups, such as agricultural, labour, military, business, scientific, or guild associations, on the basis of their common interests. The ...
as an alternative for
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for Profit (economics), profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, pric ...
and
communism Communism (from Latin la, communis, lit=common, universal, label=none) is a far-left sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology and current within the socialist movement whose goal is the establishment of a communist society, a s ...
and sought to improve the position of French Canadians in the province by expanding the social welfare net, breaking (and, if needed, nationalizing) trusts and revitalizing rural areas. In particular, the party was critical of the energy trusts and sought to bring the
hydroelectricity Hydroelectricity, or hydroelectric power, is Electricity generation, electricity generated from hydropower (water power). Hydropower supplies one sixth of the world's electricity, almost 4500 TWh in 2020, which is more than all other Renewabl ...
companies under state control. The
New Deal The New Deal was a series of programs, public work projects, financial reforms, and regulations enacted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the United States between 1933 and 1939. Major federal programs agencies included the Civilian Cons ...
policies adopted south of the
Canadian border Canadians (french: Canadiens) are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of ...
had also some impact on ALN's ideology. Initially, Maurice Duplessis was skeptical of the third political force, saying that "two
arties Arties is a locality located in the municipality of Naut Aran, in Province of Lleida province, Catalonia, Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto ...
are enough: one good and one bad". He was then preparing for the upcoming 1935 election, starting a tour across the province more than a year before the voters were to go to the ballots. On 17 June 1934, Duplessis visited the Antonio Élie, a fellow deputy from Yamaska and an award-winning breeder of
fox Foxes are small to medium-sized, omnivorous mammals belonging to several genera of the family Canidae. They have a flattened skull, upright, triangular ears, a pointed, slightly upturned snout, and a long bushy tail (or ''brush''). Twelve sp ...
es, where he delivered a speech underlining his attachment to the traditions and distrust of the modern and urban life. He also attacked the presence of foreign economic interests in the province, accusing Taschereau of supporting supermarkets with
tax credit A tax credit is a tax incentive which allows certain taxpayers to subtract the amount of the credit they have accrued from the total they owe the state. It may also be a credit granted in recognition of taxes already paid or a form of state "dis ...
s while leaving independent shop owners vulnerable to bankruptcy and by leaving the extraction of natural resources in the hands of foreign capital, which he argued let them be used against Quebeckers. These arguments echoed those made by the ALN, whose strength was amplified by Duplessis's incessant attacks on the government, even if Duplessis tried to assure that "honest" capital would remain untouched in the province and that they were less extreme than the maverick Liberals. Maurice remained distrustful of the ALN members, seeing them as unreliable men who would join the Liberals after the election and ruin his dream of heading the government himself, and warned his fellow party colleagues to stay away from ALN advances, even when publicly he encouraged "all sincere Liberals" to join forces. Despite Oscar Drouin's call to Duplessis to unite in their quest to overturn the Taschereau government, the federal Conservatives' crushing defeat in the 1935 federal election in October, a prospect of three-headed race in the
first-past-the-post In a first-past-the-post electoral system (FPTP or FPP), formally called single-member plurality voting (SMP) when used in single-member districts or informally choose-one voting in contrast to ranked voting, or score voting, voters cast their ...
system that would cause
vote splitting Vote splitting is an electoral effect in which the distribution of votes among multiple similar candidates reduces the chance of winning for any of the similar candidates, and increases the chance of winning for a dissimilar candidate. Vote spl ...
issues, and finally, Taschereau's decision to call a
snap election A snap election is an election that is called earlier than the one that has been scheduled. Generally, a snap election in a parliamentary system (the dissolution of parliament) is called to capitalize on an unusual electoral opportunity or to ...
on November 25, 1935, in a bid to capitalize on an electoral success of the federal Liberals in Quebec, Duplessis remained opposed to any agreement with the breakaway Liberals. However, faced with overwhelming support of a coalition within his party and donors' and organizers' threats to withhold resources if the Conservatives did not sign a coalition agreement, Duplessis was forced to sign one on November 7, 1935. According to the agreement, a so-called '' Union Nationale'' coalition was formed; each riding had only one candidate from the opposition, but two-thirds of ridings were signed off to the ALN members and all opposition candidates ran on ALN's platform, which was declared to be identical to the Conservatives'; if the ''Union Nationale'' won, Duplessis, given his experience, would become Premier but Gouin would choose the majority of his cabinet. The coalition failed to displace the Liberals from power, who got elected in 48 out of 90 ridings, just enough for the majority but 31 fewer than in
1931 Events January * January 2 – South Dakota native Ernest Lawrence invents the cyclotron, used to accelerate particles to study nuclear physics. * January 4 – German pilot Elly Beinhorn begins her flight to Africa. * January 22 – Sir I ...
and 20 fewer than just before the election. As for the opposition, the Conservatives managed to win 16 ridings, the best result since 1923, while the ALN got 26 MLAs. Duplessis got reelected with a safe margin of 1,202 out of 8,544 votes in total. The charisma and ardour of Duplessis, in contrast to the temperate behaviour of Paul Gouin, would strongly influence the MLAs from the ''Action libérale nationale,'' and a lot of them would co-create the new merged party of the same name as the coalition.'


Ascendancy of the ''Union Nationale''

Maurice Duplessis continued his offensive when the new parliamentary session opened. In spring 1936, Duplessis managed to call the parliamentary public accounts committee to start an inquiry into the management of public funds by the Taschereau government, in which Duplessis would place himself as prosecutor. Numerous irregularities were uncovered, where various Liberal government officials acknowledged having used the public money inappropriately. For example, Antoine Taschereau, premier's brother and accountant of the
Quebec Legislature The Quebec Legislature (officially Parliament of Quebec, french: Parlement du Québec) is the legislature of the province of Quebec, Canada. The legislature is made of two elements: the King of Canada, represented by the lieutenant governor of Q ...
, was forced to resign when he admitted having pocketed
interest In finance and economics, interest is payment from a borrower or deposit-taking financial institution to a lender or depositor of an amount above repayment of the principal sum (that is, the amount borrowed), at a particular rate. It is distinct ...
from the government's
bank deposits A deposit account is a bank account maintained by a financial institution in which a customer can deposit and withdraw money. Deposit accounts can be savings accounts, current accounts or any of several other types of accounts explained below. ...
. Duplessis even capitalized on the seemingly trivial infractions, such as when
Irénée Vautrin Irénée Vautrin was a Canadian politician from Quebec. Background He was born on December 21, 1888, near Napierville and became an architect. Member of Legislative Assembly Vautrin ran as a Liberal candidate for the Legislative Assembly of ...
, , confessed that he had bought trousers on his ministry's money, only to promptly denounce this as a symbol of the corruption of the Taschereau government. The fact that the newspapers reported on all the smallest details of the inquiry made the committee job a political goldmine for Duplessis. As a result of such revelations, Taschereau resigned on June 11, 1936, and handed over the premiership to
Adélard Godbout Joseph-Adélard Godbout (September 24, 1892 – September 18, 1956) was a Canadian agronomist and politician. He served as the 15th premier of Quebec briefly in 1936, and again from 1939 to 1944. He served as leader of the Parti Libéral du Qu ...
, who was forced to call an election on August 17 that year. The political situation during that year changed dramatically. Even though Duplessis entered the election as a junior coalition partner, his charisma, rhetorical skills and his grilling of the Liberal officials has earned him support from most of ALN deputies; Gouin, on the other hand, proved not to be a good leader of the opposition and even handed over most of coalition matters to Duplessis because of the latter's expertise in politics. On the organizational level, the Conservatives succeeded in capturing the ''Union Nationale'' brand for them. Moreover, the corruption inquiry severely weakened the governing party, which gave Duplessis a chance to single-handedly win the premiership. Therefore, on 17 June, Duplessis announced his refusal to renew the coalition agreement even though the
election writ A writ of election is a writ issued ordering the holding of an election. In Commonwealth countries writs are the usual mechanism by which general elections are called and are issued by the head of state or their representative. In the United S ...
s were already issued. The leader of the Conservatives was quickly able to force an increase of the proportion of Conservative ridings in the coalition from one-third to two-thirds, but the next day, Gouin decided to break with Duplessis and started campaigning independently against the other two parties. Gouin's bid attracted little support, as 35 out of 42 ''Union Nationale'' coalition MLAs who came to a caucus meeting in Sherbrooke backed Duplessis's takeover of the coalition, and most of ALN's members joined Duplessis and the newly created ''Union Nationale'' party. Eventually, Gouin said he would not field any candidates in any ridings due to his "temporary" retirement from politics, which confirmed Duplessis's leadership. The ''Union Nationale'' made an electoral campaign along similar lines to the 1935 election, formalizing that in a pamphlet called ''Le Catéchisme des électeurs,'' designed in a question-and-answer format to address the contemporary political and economical issues, while also adding attacks on corruption. Duplessis successfully tied Godbout to the deeply unpopular Taschereau and rallied massive support for his political appearances. When the voters came to the polls, they delivered a landslide victory for the Duplessis's party, handing 76 out of 90 seats and ending the Liberal rule over Quebec that lasted for 39 years.


Premier (1936–1939)


Composition

The first government of Maurice Duplessis was formed in peculiar circumstances. The ''Union Nationale'' at the time was far from a monolith party, as it included both former ALN and Conservative members. Fourteen of these formed the cabinet. Onésime Gagnon, Duplessis's challenger in the 1933 Conservative leadership contest, was appointed Minister of Mines, Hunting and Fisheries, and four former Liberals received their ministerial seats; however, Philippe Hamel, one of the main ideologues of the late ''Action libérale nationale,'' was not offered a position in the provincial cabinet. Among other consequences of the 1936 election, Camillien Houde, who had a feud with Duplessis, unexpectedly decided to resign from his mayorship of Montreal, citing bad relations with the new Premier, despite a looming election three months later (Houde lost it to a candidate favoured by the ''Union Nationale''). Duplessis quickly became conflicted with his minister of roads,
François Leduc François-Joseph Leduc (November 21, 1895 – February 8, 1985) was a Canadian politician. He was a Member of the provincial legislature and a City Councillor in Montreal, Quebec. Background He was born in Montreal on November 21, 1895. C ...
, who was deeply critical of his being forced to cooperate with business interests of the "friends of the party". Leduc, however, refused to resign himself, so Duplessis, who accused the minister of roads of various abuses, decided to request the Lieutenant Governor to dismiss the whole government, only to secretly assemble it later from the same members but without the recalcitrant minister—the first time ever since
Confederation A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a union of sovereign groups or states united for purposes of common action. Usually created by a treaty, confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issu ...
that a premier used this method to fire a government member. Maurice has also seen a group of five people, led by Philippe Hamel and which also included Oscar Drouin, Ernest Grégoire,
René Chaloult René Chaloult (January 26, 1901 – December 20, 1978) was a nationalist politician in Quebec, Canada. Background He was born on January 26, 1901, in Quebec City. Political career Chaloult first won a seat to the Legislative Assembly of ...
and
Adolphe Marcoux Adolphe Marcoux (October 29, 1884 – September 10, 1951) was a physician and a nationalist politician in Quebec, Canada. Born in Beauport, Quebec, Marcoux won a seat to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec as a Union Nationale candidate in ...
, quit the ''Union Nationale'' altogether and found a short-lived ''Parti National'', after he failed to keep up on his electoral pledges to fend off foreign capital. He thus assumed the interim positions of the minister of roads and minister of lands and forests after Leduc and Drouin left the government. The Premier of Quebec, at the same time, held some top positions related to his law career. After receiving the honorary title of
King's Counsel In the United Kingdom and in some Commonwealth countries, a King's Counsel ( post-nominal initials KC) during the reign of a king, or Queen's Counsel (post-nominal initials QC) during the reign of a queen, is a lawyer (usually a barrister or ...
on 30 December 1931 due to his achievements in the field of law, he appointed himself attorney general of Quebec for the whole duration of all his terms. In addition to that, he was elected President () of the
Bar of Quebec The Bar of Quebec (french: Barreau du Québec) is the regulatory body for the practice of advocates in the Canadian province of Quebec and one of two legal regulatory bodies in the province. It was founded on May 30, 1849, as the Bar of Lower Ca ...
and President of the Bar of Trois-Rivières for the 1937–1938 term, which, in addition to conferring prestige to the Premier, gave him some influence over the internal order of the bar. This was the only case in Quebec when the top prosecutorial position, the top government position and the top lawyers' self-government position were all held by one person.1936 general election and forms its first government"> File:Maurice Duplessis - 1938.png, alt=A black-and-white photo of a man sitting behind his desk and reviewing some documents, The first official photo of Maurice Duplessis as premier of Quebec, 1936 (a 1938 copy is shown) File:Gouvernement Duplessis 1936.jpg, alt=A black-and-white photo of fourteen gentlemen, seven sitting and seven standing behind, all in suits., The photo of the first Duplessis's government, about the date when the ministers were sworn in, i.e. August 1936 File:Québec - Hôtel du Parlement 3.jpg, alt=A palace-like building with the flag of Quebec waving from its central spire, A photo of the Parliament Building of Quebec (taken in 2007), the place where Duplessis was working for more than thirty years File:Château Frontenac2010.jpg, alt=A five-star hotel looking like a castle, The
Château Frontenac The Fairmont Le Château Frontenac, commonly referred to as the Château Frontenac, is a historic hotel in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. The hotel is situated in Old Quebec, within the historic district's Upper Town, on the southern side of Place ...
, Duplessis's official residence in his capacity as Premier of Quebec File:Logo Union nationale.svg, alt=A logo of a political party, consisting of blue letter "u" and red letter "n", glued together by a white stripe with a blue fleur-de-lis in its middle,
Logo A logo (abbreviation of logotype; ) is a graphic mark, emblem, or symbol used to aid and promote public identification and recognition. It may be of an abstract or figurative design or include the text of the name it represents as in a wordma ...
of the ''Union Nationale'' (1935–1989). Until his death in 1959, Maurice Duplessis led the party. Under his leadership, it won five elections out of seven. File:É.-L. Patenaude et cabinet Duplessis, 1936.jpg, alt=A sepia photo of fourteen men in suits standing in two rows, Maurice Duplessis (just right of centre in the foreground), standing beside Ésioff-Léon Patenaude, the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (seen immediately to Duplessis's left), as well as two aides to Patenaude and ten cabinet members File:GouvernementDuplessis1936.jpg, alt=A black-and-white photo of fourteen people sitting around the table in an official setting, The Cabinet of Quebec, 1936 File:Membres de l'Assemblée législative du Québec en séance, 1936.jpg, The Legislative Assembly seating in 1936. The
crucifix A crucifix (from Latin ''cruci fixus'' meaning "(one) fixed to a cross") is a cross with an image of Jesus on it, as distinct from a bare cross. The representation of Jesus himself on the cross is referred to in English as the ''corpus'' (Lati ...
, seen above the rostrum of the
Speaker Speaker may refer to: Society and politics * Speaker (politics), the presiding officer in a legislative assembly * Public speaker, one who gives a speech or lecture * A person producing speech: the producer of a given utterance, especially: ** I ...
, was installed on October 7, 1936, and stayed there for almost 83 years. Its presence sparked debate about secularism in Quebec, until the
National Assembly In politics, a national assembly is either a unicameral legislature, the lower house of a bicameral legislature, or both houses of a bicameral legislature together. In the English language it generally means "an assembly composed of the rep ...
passed a motion to remove it.


Economical and welfare policies

During his speech from the Throne, Duplessis emphasized that his priority was giving " dvantage tothe human capital over money capital". He announced four measures seeking to implement his agenda: creation of the Farm Credit Bureau, abolition the so-called Dillon law (which was adopted to restrict the possibility of challenging 1931 election results), adoption of an
old-age pension A pension (, from Latin ''pensiō'', "payment") is a fund into which a sum of money is added during an employee's employment years and from which payments are drawn to support the person's retirement from work in the form of periodic payments ...
program together with the federal government and enhancement of the law on workplace accidents, as well as a ban on ministers to sit on corporate
boards of directors A board of directors (commonly referred simply as the board) is an executive committee that jointly supervises the activities of an organization, which can be either a for-profit or a nonprofit organization such as a business, nonprofit organiz ...
. In particular, the rural loan program, which Duplessis instituted due to his conviction that agriculture still constituted the main locomotive of economic progress in the province, proved extremely popular in the countryside, which the new party exploited to the full and which, according to Michel Sarra-Bournet, was the main factor of ''Union Nationale'''s longevity. This was, however, where the similarities with the electoral pledges ended. Despite assurances that he would reform the economy, the policies he pursued largely mirrored those of the Liberals his party had just deposed. He also opened the province to more foreign capital, notably to
Robert R. McCormick Robert Rutherford "Colonel" McCormick (July 30, 1880 – April 1, 1955) was an American lawyer, businessman and anti-war activist. A member of the McCormick family of Chicago, McCormick became a lawyer, Republican Chicago alderman, distinguish ...
, an American
media mogul A media proprietor, media mogul or media tycoon refers to a entrepreneur who controls, through personal ownership or via a dominant position in any media-related company or enterprise, media consumed by many individuals. Those with significant co ...
and outspoken critic of the New Deal policies, who built a new paper plant in
Baie-Comeau Baie-Comeau (; 2021 city population 20,687; CA population 26,643) is a city located approximately north-east of Quebec City in the Côte-Nord region of the province of Quebec, Canada. It is located on the shores of the Saint Lawrence River nea ...
. Duplessis also resented nationalization of hydroelectric plants, as some ALN members proposed while the ''Union Nationale'' was still a coalition. This attracted accusations of hypocrisy from his adversaries, but even some members of his own party were not content, either, seeing this as "selling off Quebec to the foreigners". As a result, five MLAs left his party due to this about-face. The condition of Quebec's economy did not improve during his term due to the reverbations of the
Great Depression The Great Depression (19291939) was an economic shock that impacted most countries across the world. It was a period of economic depression that became evident after a major fall in stock prices in the United States. The economic contagio ...
, which, however, Duplessis blamed on
Ottawa Ottawa (, ; Canadian French: ) is the capital city of Canada. It is located at the confluence of the Ottawa River and the Rideau River in the southern portion of the province of Ontario. Ottawa borders Gatineau, Quebec, and forms the core ...
for what he said was an artificial restriction of the province's borrowing power. Public debt ballooned from $150 million to $286 million during his three years in power (Can$ to Can$ in 2020 dollars), and the tempo of the emission of obligations during his first term exceeded that of all of prior administrations since Confederation. It prompted Ottawa to control the province's borrowing, which Duplessis decried as an invasion on fiscal autonomy of the province. His
social welfare Welfare, or commonly social welfare, is a type of government support intended to ensure that members of a society can meet basic human needs such as food and shelter. Social security may either be synonymous with welfare, or refer specifical ...
record in the first term was somewhat progressive. Old-age pensions and workplace accident protections were instituted during his first year in office, as were some
public works Public works are a broad category of infrastructure projects, financed and constructed by the government, for recreational, employment, and health and safety uses in the greater community. They include public buildings ( municipal buildings, sc ...
projects, such as the completion of the
Montreal Botanical Garden The Montreal Botanical Garden (french: link=no, Jardin botanique de Montréal) is a large botanical garden in Montreal, Quebec, Canada comprising of thematic gardens and greenhouses. It was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 2008 ...
. The ''Union Nationale'' was the first Quebec cabinet to include the Ministry of Health, and it also financed the new , a research facility similar to Paris's
Pasteur Institute The Pasteur Institute (french: Institut Pasteur) is a French non-profit private foundation dedicated to the study of biology, micro-organisms, diseases, and vaccines. It is named after Louis Pasteur, who invented pasteurization and vaccines f ...
. In line with the Church's teaching, Duplessis gave assistance to needy mothers (but not to unwed, divorced or separated women), as well as to the blind and the
orphan An orphan (from the el, ορφανός, orphanós) is a child whose parents have died. In common usage, only a child who has lost both parents due to death is called an orphan. When referring to animals, only the mother's condition is usuall ...
ed. Duplessis adopted the Fair Wage Act () and created the Fair Wage Board. It was the first time the
minimum wage A minimum wage is the lowest remuneration that employers can legally pay their employees—the price floor below which employees may not sell their labor. Most countries had introduced minimum wage legislation by the end of the 20th century. Bec ...
in Quebec was available for all workers (it only previously applied to women), but the legislation was marred by reticence of the
trade union A trade union (labor union in American English), often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers intent on "maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment", ch. I such as attaining better wages and benefits ( ...
s to embrace the scheme (they preferred
collective bargaining Collective bargaining is a process of negotiation between employers and a group of employees aimed at agreements to regulate working salaries, working conditions, benefits, and other aspects of workers' compensation and rights for workers. The i ...
instead, which led to agreements that were not regulated by the Fair Wage Act), by the government's liberal application of the law and the proliferation of often arbitrary decisions of the Board. Despite an increase of minimum wages above
Ontario Ontario ( ; ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada.Ontario is located in the geographic eastern half of Canada, but it has historically and politically been considered to be part of Central Canada. Located in Central Ca ...
levels, almost a fifth of workers were not paid the mandated wages in 1940, suggesting its rather weak enforcement. Duplessis additionally banned
closed shop A pre-entry closed shop (or simply closed shop) is a form of union security agreement under which the employer agrees to hire union members only, and employees must remain members of the union at all times to remain employed. This is different fr ...
arrangements and outlawed the practice where the employers fired employees only to return them to work with a lower salary. The latter policy, however, created
perverse incentive A perverse incentive is an incentive that has an unintended and undesirable result that is contrary to the intentions of its designers. The cobra effect is the most direct kind of perverse incentive, typically because the incentive unintentional ...
s, as the companies increasingly stopped negotiating with the workers and were bypassing the trade unions while asking for government assistance during thestrikes. This was the case with the
Dominion Textile The Dominion Textile Inc. or Domtex was a Canadian textile manufacturer that was founded in 1905 and closed in 1998 when its remains were purchased by the American Polymer Group, at the time headed by Jerry Zucker. History Following the instit ...
strike in August 1937 and another one in a shipyard in Sorel, when Duplessis, who saw the protests as "unfortunate and unjustified", ordered workers to return to work before starting negotiations (the ''Confédération des travailleurs catholiques du Canada'' (CTCC) eventually secured, with government's mediation, a short-term agreement). Most historians largely agree that favouritism and
clientelism Clientelism or client politics is the exchange of goods and services for political support, often involving an implicit or explicit quid-pro-quo. It is closely related to patronage politics and vote buying. Clientelism involves an asymmetric rel ...
were one of the defining features of Maurice Duplessis's reign over the province. The premier himself did not particularly hide from it, e.g. by telling people in the ridings that had not yet elected an ''Union Nationale'' representative that if the constituents would like some sort of investment in their area, they would have to show him this on election day. Even if Duplessis personally did not enrich himself by this means, the party he led did not hesitate to fill its coffers by contributions from businesses to which it would return favours once in power. It was largely due to these donations that the ''Union Nationale'' managed to conduct well-financed electoral campaigns.


Societal issues

Duplessis being a deeply devout person, he regularly engaged with the Catholic Church officials. Duplessis strongly enticed them to support him by making numerous symbolic moves. For instance, when Brother André, whom he met in his elementary school in Montreal, died on January 6, 1937, he had a mausoleum built in his honour. The following year, in his opening speech to the National Eucharistic Congress in Quebec City, Duplessis stressed he did not accept the ideas coming from the
French Revolution The French Revolution ( ) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. Many of its ideas are considere ...
and underlined his Catholic faith. In addition to that, he also introduced the crucifix to the debate hall of the Legislative Assembly. This could have been a nod to his father's ultramontanism, but it was more probably a continuation of Taschereau's policies, who introduced a "universal" prayer in 1922 and ordered to place crucifixes in Quebec courtrooms. At the same time, the premier did not intend to give as much power to the clergy it had under Taschereau, throwing the Church out of the lawmaking process related to social and moral issues it used to have access to. In fact, only part of the clergy supported Duplessis, and many more preferred ''Parti National'''s manifestos. The defining feature of his first term was the fierce
opposition to Communism Anti-communism is political and ideological opposition to communism. Organized anti-communism developed after the 1917 October Revolution in the Russian Empire, and it reached global dimensions during the Cold War, when the United States and the ...
, something that would persist in later terms, too. Duplessis said that "the Communism must be considered the top public enemy, despised and to be despised". In line with his ideas, and with unanimous support of the Liberals, the ''Union Nationale'' enacted the Act to Protect the Province Against Communistic Propaganda, better known as the Padlock Law, which allowed the Attorney General (i.e. Duplessis) to prosecute people propagating
Bolshevism Bolshevism (from Bolshevik) is a revolutionary socialist current of Soviet Marxist–Leninist political thought and political regime associated with the formation of a rigidly centralized, cohesive and disciplined party of social revolution, fo ...
or Communism (not defined in the law) on private or public property and banned any publications "advocating or trying to advocate" the ideologies. It could be arbitrarily used against trade unions and the clergy Duplessis personally did not like, and the law provided no appeal to those expropriated. The law received positive reactions from the general public as well as the clergy, but was fiercely criticized in the Anglophone press, which tied its enaction with Cardinal Villeneuve's supposed undue influence on the government. It was only struck down in 1957 by the
Supreme Court of Canada The Supreme Court of Canada (SCC; french: Cour suprême du Canada, CSC) is the Supreme court, highest court in the Court system of Canada, judicial system of Canada. It comprises List of Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada, nine justices, wh ...
in '' Switzman v Elbling'' as an infringement on federal government's powers to pass criminal statutes. Another issue of his government was the approaching of
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
and
conscription Conscription (also called the draft in the United States) is the state-mandated enlistment of people in a national service, mainly a military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and it continues in some countries to the present day un ...
-related issues. On the one hand, Duplessis tried to assure
George VI George VI (Albert Frederick Arthur George; 14 December 1895 – 6 February 1952) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until Death and state funeral of George VI, his death in 1952. ...
of his province's loyalty towards the Crown during the king's visit in May 1939, but on the other, many French Canadians had the conscription crisis of 1917 fresh in their minds. Therefore, Duplessis, together with his aides, decided to make use of the electorate's distrust of federal war plans and general anti-war attitude of Quebeckers to announce a
snap election A snap election is an election that is called earlier than the one that has been scheduled. Generally, a snap election in a parliamentary system (the dissolution of parliament) is called to capitalize on an unusual electoral opportunity or to ...
, hoping to catch the Liberals by surprise and persuading the electorate that the conscription was a means to take over provincial competences. The effort did not succeed, however, as the provincial Liberals also announced their opposition to conscription, as did
Camillien Houde Camillien Houde (August 13, 1889 – September 11, 1958) was a Quebec politician, a Member of Parliament, and a four-time mayor of Montreal – one of the few Canadian politicians to have served at all three levels of government. Political c ...
and some members of the ''Union Nationale,'' including Wilbrod Rousseau and
Adhémar Raynault Adhémar Raynault (12 July 1891 – 11 April 1984) was a Canadian politician and a Mayor of Montreal. Early life Adhémar Raynault was born on July 12, 1891 in Saint-Gérard-de-Magella. Raynault moved to Montreal in 1911. He started as a cle ...
; finally, William Mackenzie King, the
Prime Minister of Canada The prime minister of Canada (french: premier ministre du Canada, link=no) is the head of government of Canada. Under the Westminster system, the prime minister governs with the Confidence and supply, confidence of a majority the elected Hou ...
, declared that no one would be drafted to the army by force, particularly as three French Canadian ministers in King's government threatened to resign in case of Duplessis's reelection, which would give way to supporters of conscription. At the same time, the Liberals pointed to the bad state of the economy. The 1939 election was disastrous for the ''Union Nationale'': it only received 39.1% of votes, but, more importantly, it got 15 out of 86 seats, losing the premiership to
Adélard Godbout Joseph-Adélard Godbout (September 24, 1892 – September 18, 1956) was a Canadian agronomist and politician. He served as the 15th premier of Quebec briefly in 1936, and again from 1939 to 1944. He served as leader of the Parti Libéral du Qu ...
.


Return to the Official Opposition

The defeat of the ''Union Nationale'' met Duplessis's leadership in danger. Some of his fellow MLAs were mad at his starting the election in an unfortunate moment.
Joseph-Damase Bégin Joseph-Damase Bégin, also known as Jos-D. Bégin, was a Canadian politician and an eight-term Member of the Legislative Assembly of Quebec. Background He was born on August 6, 1900 in Lac-Etchemin, Quebec and was a car dealer. Member of th ...
called to convene a caucus meeting to consider changing the leader, with Onésime Gagnon and Hormisdas Langlais as possible contenders. Duplessis, however, managed to persuade his colleagues not to do that. The ''Union Nationale'' was at the brink of implosion but eventually survived the turbulent period following the 1939 electoral defeat. Another challenge to his leadership came in 1942, when Duplessis was criticised for his alcoholic tendencies—he would sometimes participate in parliamentary deliberations while completely drunk—but after being absent for a few months due to surgical treatment of strangulated
hernia A hernia is the abnormal exit of tissue or an organ (anatomy), organ, such as the bowel, through the wall of the cavity in which it normally resides. Various types of hernias can occur, most commonly involving the abdomen, and specifically the gr ...
(see relevant section), the leader of opposition decided to quit drinking altogether. The Liberals introduced some progressive policies during their five years in power. One of the main achievements of the Godbout administration was granting women suffrage in provincial elections (they were allowed to vote in federal elections since 1917). Duplessis had previously considered the issue several times, but largely avoided discussing it and generally either submitted abstentions or nays during floor votes, and at one time proposed to block the legislation in committee. On this vote, Duplessis, as most of ''Union Nationale'' members, opposed the government, with the leader of the opposition in particular citing Godbout's voting record on women's suffrage (he voted "nay" on seven previous occasions) and criticizing the about-face. Duplessis did make some efforts to prevent passage of the bill but ultimately he did not seem to as intrigued by the issue as some other MLAs. Another landmark policy of the Liberals, the introduction of compulsory schooling from age six to fourteen in 1943, was prompted by a report noting high dropout rates after four years of formal schooling. As with the women's suffrage, the bill was opposed by ''Union Nationale'' and Duplessis (only Camille Pouliot voted with the Liberals), and during his fifteen years in power after Godbout, the obligation was very rarely followed in Quebec. Finally, in 1944, Godbout created Hydro-Québec from the nationalization of
Montreal Light, Heat & Power The Montreal Light, Heat and Power Company (MLH&P) was a public utility, utility company operating the electricity distribution, electric and gas distribution legal monopoly, monopoly in the area of Montreal, Quebec, Canada, until its nationaliza ...
and its subsidiary Beauharnois Power, but Duplessis again opposed the policy, saying that its timing just before the 1944 election suggested that it was a
political campaign A political campaign is an organized effort which seeks to influence the decision making progress within a specific group. In democracies, political campaigns often refer to electoral campaigns, by which representatives are chosen or referend ...
trick. He also disagreed with the details of its implementation (he argued that the takeover should have been made by Montreal rather than the provincial government), the fact that the nationalization would cost taxpayer money and that the high electricity prices (the main driver of the nationalization) could be lowered via negotiations between the government and the companies, rather than by assuming state ownership.


1944 election

Just as with the 1935 elections, a third political force wanted to enter Quebec politics: the anti-conscriptionist Bloc populaire, a brainchild of such figures as
Lionel Groulx Lionel Groulx (; 13 January 1878 – 23 May 1967) was a Canadian Roman Catholic priest, historian, and Quebec nationalist. Biography Early life and ordination Lionel Groulx, né Joseph Adolphe Lyonel Groulx, the son of a farmer and lumber ...
and , the editor-in chief of ''
Le Devoir ''Le Devoir'' (, "Duty") is a French-language newspaper published in Montreal and distributed in Quebec and throughout Canada. It was founded by journalist and politician Henri Bourassa in 1910. ''Le Devoir'' is one of few independent large-c ...
'', and centered around
André Laurendeau Joseph-Edmond-André Laurendeau (March 21, 1912 – June 1, 1968) was a journalist, politician, co-chair of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, and playwright in Quebec, Canada. He is usually referred to as André Lauren ...
and Maxime Raymond. It was mostly due to their efforts as part of the ''Ligue pour la Défense du Canada,'' the precursor to the Bloc populaire, that over 72% of Quebeckers voted against introducing conscription in 1942, in stark contrast with English-speaking Canada, which overwhelmingly voted in favour. A nationalist formation, it supported the nationalization of hydroelectricity and argued for more autonomy for Quebec; at the same time it drew inspirations from Catholic social teaching, corporatism and
syndicalism Syndicalism is a revolutionary current within the left-wing of the labor movement that seeks to unionize workers according to industry and advance their demands through strikes with the eventual goal of gaining control over the means of prod ...
. The party thus sought to compete for nationalist and anti-war votes with the ''Union Nationale'', but at the same time largely keeping the economic policies of the Liberals. Duplessis largely succeeded in sidelining the Bloc populaire, however, by portraying the religious minorities, the federal government and the trade unions as threatening the province's interests, autonomy, traditions and identity. In the same vein, Duplessis attacked Godbout's reforms as threatening the Church, the clergy and the religion (and indeed many Godbout's initiatives were criticized by Cardinal Villeneuve). During the campaign, Duplessis notably floated a false
anti-Semitic Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism. Antis ...
conspiracy theory that asserted that the federal government and the Quebec Liberals struck a secret deal with the so-called "International Zionist Brotherhood" to settle 100,000
Holocaust The Holocaust, also known as the Shoah, was the genocide of European Jews during World War II. Between 1941 and 1945, Nazi Germany and its collaborators systematically murdered some six million Jews across German-occupied Europe; a ...
refugees in Quebec in exchange for campaign contributions for federal and provincial Liberals, and pledged to prevent it from happening. While Max Beer argues that this story did not influence the election result very much, the public and the press was enthusiastic about a leader who would not let any refugees arrive in '' la belle province.'' The business community, in its turn, was assured by his will to pursue development driven by private investments and opposition to state takeovers of companies. In the 1944 election, Duplessis's ''Union Nationale'' received the smallest share of votes in any election during his leadership (just over 38%) and finished behind the Liberals in the popular vote count, but due to vote splitting between the Bloc populaire and Godbout's party, it was the ''Union Nationale'' that got the majority in the Legislative Assembly, with 48 out of 91 MLAs belonging to Duplessis's party. This election marked the beginning of Duplessis's 15 years as Premier of Quebec.


Premier (1944–1959)

Duplessis returned as premier in the 1944 election, and held power without serious opposition for the next fifteen years, until his death, winning elections in 1948, 1952 and 1956. He became known simply as ''le Chef'' ("the boss"). He was elected to five terms of office in all, the last four of them consecutive. Duplessis remains the last Quebec premier to have won three or more consecutive majority governments. After him, no political party in Quebec elections at the provincial level had won more than two terms of office in a row until the December 2008 victory of
Jean Charest John James "Jean" Charest (; born June 24, 1958) is a Canadian lawyer and former politician who served as the 29th premier of Quebec from 2003 to 2012 and the fifth deputy prime minister of Canada in 1993. Charest was elected to the House o ...
's Liberal party, its third consecutive win. Duplessis favoured rural areas over city development and introduced various agricultural credits during his first term. He was also noted for meagre investment in social services except education (budget was multiplied by six between 1946 and 1956) in Catholic schools. Duplessis also opposed military conscription and Canadian involvement in
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
. The often had the active support of the
Roman Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
in its political campaigns.


Labour policy, anti-unionism

In 1949, Duplessis also attempted to introduce a law modeled on the 1947 American Taft-Hartley Act to eliminate certain labour union rights established by the Labour Relations Law of 1944, which was Quebec's equivalent of the American
Wagner Act The National Labor Relations Act of 1935, also known as the Wagner Act, is a foundational statute of United States labor law that guarantees the right of private sector employees to organize into trade unions, engage in collective bargaining, and ...
of 1935. Duplessis's bill was withdrawn after fierce union opposition. Duplessis later introduced a similar law in 1954, known as Bill 19 to force union groups to expel any communist-supporter. Any group would lose its trade union accreditation if there was a single member with ties to communist organizations or who supported the ideology. The bill was so unpopular that it lost even the support of the conservative Catholic union group. That controversy forced the union to review its structure, which eventually led to the creation of the
Confédération des syndicats nationaux The Confédération des syndicats nationaux (CSN; Confederation of National Trade Unions) is the second largest trade union federation in Quebec by membership. History It was founded in Hull in 1921 as the ''Confédération des travailleurs ca ...
(CSN). Duplessis's time in office was marked by significant labour strikes, such as the
Dominion Textile The Dominion Textile Inc. or Domtex was a Canadian textile manufacturer that was founded in 1905 and closed in 1998 when its remains were purchased by the American Polymer Group, at the time headed by Jerry Zucker. History Following the instit ...
in Valleyfield in 1946, the
Asbestos Strike The Asbestos strike of 1949, based in and around the town of Asbestos, Quebec, Canada, was a four-month labour dispute by asbestos miners. It has traditionally been portrayed as a turning point in Quebec history that helped lead to the Quiet Rev ...
in
Estrie Estrie () is an administrative region of Quebec that comprises the Eastern Townships. ''Estrie'', a French neologism, was coined as a derivative of ''est'', "east". Originally settled by anglophones, today it is about 90 per cent francophone. Angl ...
, and the Murdochville copper mine strike in 1957. In those conflicts, Duplessis responded rapidly with force by using the provincial police to disperse picket lines and restore order, with several arrests. However, the Murdochville strike led to a major victory for union rights and provided the impetus and inspiration for other labour leaders to emerge and energized calls for labour rights.


Jehovah's Witnesses and ''Roncarelli v. Duplessis''

Duplessis actively opposed
Jehovah's Witnesses Jehovah's Witnesses is a millenarian restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity. The group reports a worldwide membership of approximately 8.7 million adherents involved in ...
, causing ''
The Globe and Mail ''The Globe and Mail'' is a Canadian newspaper printed in five cities in western and central Canada. With a weekly readership of approximately 2 million in 2015, it is Canada's most widely read newspaper on weekdays and Saturdays, although it ...
'' to comment, "The persecution of the religious sect known as Jehovah’s Witnesses, now going on in Quebec Province with enthusiastic official and judicial sanction, has taken a turn which suggests that the
Inquisition The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the Catholic Church whose aim was to combat heresy, conducting trials of suspected heretics. Studies of the records have found that the overwhelming majority of sentences consisted of penances, ...
has returned to French Canada." In 1943 the Witnesses of the Canadian province of Quebec were continuously arrested up to twice the same day. Duplessis once used his influence to revoke a liquor licence from one of their members' businesses. In '' Roncarelli v. Duplessis'', the decision of the lower court was upheld by the
Supreme Court of Canada The Supreme Court of Canada (SCC; french: Cour suprême du Canada, CSC) is the Supreme court, highest court in the Court system of Canada, judicial system of Canada. It comprises List of Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada, nine justices, wh ...
, and damages to Roncarelli were increased. Duplessis was ordered to pay $33,123.53 in damages. In his comments, Justice Abbott wrote, "The cancellation of the licence was made solely because of the plaintiff's association with the Witnesses of Jehovah and with the object and purpose of preventing him from continuing to furnish bail for members of that sect." In a 6–3 decision, Duplessis influencing the liquor commission to cancel the license was deemed an improper use of his power.


Death and legacy

Duplessis died in office after a series of strokes he suffered while visiting the
Iron Ore Company of Canada Iron Ore Company of Canada (often abbreviated to IOC) (french: Compagnie Minière IOC) is a Canadian-based producer of iron ore. The company was founded in 1949 from a partnership of Canadian and American M.A. Hanna Company. It is now owned by ...
in
Schefferville Schefferville is a town in the Canadian province of Quebec. Schefferville is in the heart of the Naskapi and Innu territory in northern Quebec, less than 2 km (1¼ miles) from the border with Labrador on the north shore of Knob Lake. It i ...
in the presence of seven government and company officials on September 7, 1959. Following his death and the subsequent election of a Liberal government under
Jean Lesage Jean Lesage (; 10 June 1912 – 12 December 1980) was a Canadian lawyer and politician from Quebec. He served as the 19th premier of Quebec from 22 June 1960 to 16 June 1966. Alongside Georges-Émile Lapalme, René Lévesque and others, he is ...
in 1960, Quebec entered a period later termed the
Quiet Revolution The Quiet Revolution (french: Révolution tranquille) was a period of intense socio-political and socio-cultural change in French Canada which started in Quebec after the election of 1960, characterized by the effective secularization of govern ...
, a decisive movement away from the conservative policies of Duplessis and toward a secular
social democracy Social democracy is a Political philosophy, political, Social philosophy, social, and economic philosophy within socialism that supports Democracy, political and economic democracy. As a policy regime, it is described by academics as advocati ...
. Duplessis has not been without his defenders. Conrad Black's 1977
encomium ''Encomium'' is a Latin word deriving from the Ancient Greek ''enkomion'' (), meaning "the praise of a person or thing." Another Latin equivalent is ''laudatio'', a speech in praise of someone or something. Originally was the song sung by the c ...
, ''Duplessis'', painted a sympathetic portrait of the man as a transitional figure towards modernism, and the victim of partisan attack and personal malady. Nevertheless, Duplessis's legacy has been the subject of repeated criticism in the decades since his death. Quebec nationalists dislike his anti-separatist stance, liberals denounce his social conservatism. His critics hold that Duplessis's inherently corrupt patronage politics, his reactionary conservatism, his emphasis on traditional family and religious values, his anachronistic anti-union stance, rural focus and his preservation and promotion of Catholic Church institutions over the development of a secular social infrastructure akin to that underway in most of the postwar West, stunted Quebec's social and economic development by at least a decade. In response, it has been argued that the notion of the Duplessis "black years" is a myth propagated by all subsequent major political actors in Quebec due to a fundamental aversion to Catholic church-oriented traditionalist patterns of development, with dominant intellectual movements combining various elements of this dislike. However, the counter-argument, that this is an over-simplification which fails to capture the complexities of Quebec politics, society and its economy, has consistently prevailed in public and academic discourse for some time. Aside from occasional defenders of his anti-communist and socially conservative views, defence of the Duplessis government today comes primarily from traditionalist conservatives (
paleoconservatives Paleoconservatism is a political philosophy and variety of conservatism in the United States stressing American nationalism, Christian ethics, regionalism, and traditionalist conservatism. Paleoconservatism's concerns overlap with those of the ...
in North American definition) who view his regime as an essential reaffirmation of traditional values, and as an assertion by democratic means of the basics of church and family life with low social spending and suppression of labour unions. Richard Jones, an historian specialising in the political and cultural history of Canada and Quebec, summed up Duplessis: ::"The Duplessis regime may well have endured for too long, the Union Nationale leader's traditionalist policies may well have been anachronistic when compared with the relatively modern society that, in many respects, the Quebec of the 1950s had already become."


Private life

Duplessis was a lifelong bachelor and had no children. That is not to say, however, that Duplessis was not interested in women he met, particularly in his student years. During
World War I World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, Duplessis courted Augustine Delisle, a daughter of a prosperous coal trader. Duplessis's family disapproved of a connection that would unite them with a family of merchants. Duplessis remained bitter towards his family members over their opposition to this marriage, and seems to have decided at this time never to marry. That said, Duplessis remained close to his sisters as well as their husbands and children. He also became a godfather of a daughter of
Antonio Talbot Antonio Talbot (May 29, 1900 – September 25, 1980) was a Canadian politician from Quebec. He once served as interim leader of the Union Nationale. Background He was born on May 29, 1900, in Saint-Pierre-de-la-Rivière-du-Sud, Quebec, near ...
, the minister of roads in his post-war government. Duplessis suffered from numerous health problems throughout his life. He underwent two surgeries for a strangulated hernia in 1930 and 1942, which each time ended in several-month-long stays in the hospital due to complications or other diseases slowing down his recovery, as well as a shorter one for injuries he had sustained in a car accident in 1929. Duplessis had also been a heavy drinker, but on the advice of his doctor, his party's pressure and Adélard Godbout's suggestion that this "weakness was going to ruin uplessis, became abstinent after his second surgery. It was also in 1942 that it was discovered Duplessis had
diabetes Diabetes, also known as diabetes mellitus, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high blood sugar level ( hyperglycemia) over a prolonged period of time. Symptoms often include frequent urination, increased thirst and increased ap ...
, which particularly caused trouble in the last years of his life. Conrad Black also writes that he suffered from
hypospadias Hypospadias is a common variation in fetal development of the penis in which the urethra does not open from its usual location in the head of the penis. It is the second-most common birth abnormality of the male reproductive system, affecting abou ...
. Despite a populist image Duplessis created in public and rumours that persisted even after his death, his hobbies included opera and literature. Even though he most liked to read historical or political books, he also read classical French or English-language authors, such as
Rudyard Kipling Joseph Rudyard Kipling ( ; 30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936)''The Times'', (London) 18 January 1936, p. 12. was an English novelist, short-story writer, poet, and journalist. He was born in British India, which inspired much of his work. ...
,
Tennyson Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson (6 August 1809 – 6 October 1892) was an English poet. He was the Poet Laureate during much of Queen Victoria's reign. In 1829, Tennyson was awarded the Chancellor's Gold Medal at Cambridge for one of his ...
and
Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
. Later in his life, Duplessis developed a taste for paintings and started collecting them. At his death, his sister Jeanne-L. Balcer-Duplessis inherited the works of art, which she donated to the provincial government in exchange for the cancellation of the inheritance tax. Most of the paintings, including those by Clarence Gagnon, Cornelius Krieghoff, J. M. W. Turner, Auguste Renoir,
Charles Jacque Charles-Émile Jacque (23 May 1813 – 7 May 1894) was a French painter of Pastoralism and engraver who was, with Jean-François Millet, part of the Barbizon School. He first learned to engrave maps when he spent seven years in the French Army. ...
, Cornelis Springer and
Johan Jongkind Johan Barthold Jongkind (3 June 1819 – 9 February 1891) was a Dutch painter and printmaker. He painted marine landscapes in a free manner and is regarded as a forerunner of Impressionism. Biography Jongkind was born in the town of Lattro ...
, may be seen in the National Museum of Fine Arts of Quebec. On the other hand, his love of sport was not unequivocal. In fact, Duplessis has not practised any in his life, except for
croquet Croquet ( or ; french: croquet) is a sport that involves hitting wooden or plastic balls with a mallet through hoops (often called "wickets" in the United States) embedded in a grass playing court. Its international governing body is the Wor ...
. However, he supported the
Montreal Canadiens The Montreal CanadiensEven in English, the French spelling is always used instead of ''Canadians''. The French spelling of ''Montréal'' is also sometimes used in the English media. (french: link=no, Les Canadiens de Montréal), officially ...
and tuned into radio broadcasts of international baseball matches with the
New York Yankees The New York Yankees are an American professional baseball team based in the Boroughs of New York City, New York City borough of the Bronx. The Yankees compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) Amer ...
. In addition to that, he ran a local cricket club in his hometown of
Trois-Rivières Trois-Rivières (, – 'Three Rivers') is a city in the Mauricie administrative region of Quebec, Canada, at the confluence of the Saint-Maurice and Saint Lawrence rivers, on the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River across from the city of ...
.


See also

*


Notes


References


Books


In English

* * * * * * * * * * * * *


In French

* * * (vol. 1: 1890–1944, vol. 2: 1944–1959) * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


Audiovisual materials

*
Union Nationale advertisement, 1948A speech on provincial autonomy, made in 1956
in
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (french: Société Radio-Canada), branded as CBC/Radio-Canada, is a Canadian public broadcaster for both radio and television. It is a federal Crown corporation that receives funding from the government. ...
archives (in English) * – the visit of the
Royal Family A royal family is the immediate family of kings/queens, emirs/emiras, sultans/ sultanas, or raja/ rani and sometimes their extended family. The term imperial family appropriately describes the family of an emperor or empress, and the term ...
connected with the opening of the
Saint Lawrence Seaway The St. Lawrence Seaway (french: la Voie Maritime du Saint-Laurent) is a system of locks, canals, and channels in Canada and the United States that permits oceangoing vessels to travel from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes of North Ameri ...
* *''
Duplessis Duplessis may refer to: * Duplessis (surname) **Maurice Duplessis (1890–1959), the 16th premier of Quebec ***'' Duplessis (TV series)'', a historical television series about Maurice Duplessis that aired in Québec in 1978 ***Duplessis Orphans s ...
'', a seven-episod
series
by Denys Arcand (1978) * Two series from the documentary ' (1997), in French: *
Finally, the war (1929-1945)
*
The times of Duplessis (1945-1959)
*' (1997)'',''
documentary
about the origins of Hydro-Québec from
Radio-Canada The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (french: Société Radio-Canada), branded as CBC/Radio-Canada, is a Canadian public broadcaster for both radio and television. It is a federal Crown corporation that receives funding from the government. ...
, with first two series covering Duplessis's era, in French *Three episodes from the documentary ' '30 days that have shaped Quebec'' 2000, in French: *
Maurice Duplessis gets to power – 17 August 1936
*
Maurice Duplessis's revenge – 8 August 1944
*
The beginning of the Asbestos strike – 13 February 1949
* ''The
Duplessis Orphans The Duplessis Orphans (french: link=no, les Orphelins de Duplessis) were a population of Canadian children wrongly certified as mentally ill by the provincial government of Quebec and confined to psychiatric institutions in the 1940s and 1950s ...
'' (2003),
documentary
by , in French * ''The Premiers,'' a documentary on provincial leaders, with an episode on Duplessis: par
123


Short biographical entries

* * * *


External links

*
Duplessis's Speeches from the Throne
*''The Union Nationale was founded as an alliance in 1935 with Duplessis as leader. In 1936 the UN formally became a unitary political party with the Quebec Conservative Party dissolving into it.'' {{DEFAULTSORT:Duplessis, Maurice 1890 births 1959 deaths Canadian anti-abortion activists Canadian monarchists Canadian political party founders Canadian Roman Catholics Conservatism in Canada Conservative Party of Quebec MNAs Lawyers in Quebecliberal National syndicalists People from Trois-Rivières Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada) Premiers of Quebec Right-wing politics in Canada Leaders of the Union Nationale (Quebec) Union Nationale (Quebec) MNAs Université de Montréal alumni Canadian people of World War II Anti-anarchism Anti-communism Anti-Masonry Right-wing populism in Canada Maurice Duplessis Canadian anti-communists Antisemitism in Canada